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Drought and famine in Africa

Africa like any other continent has its own share of problems; some problems are global while others are specifically tied to Africa. Drought and famine is one such problem that has been part of Africa from time in memorial, the effects of drought is always severe and affects millions of people. The drought situation especially in the horn of Africa and the northern arid areas of Kenya has been a major concern for a long time, as result humanitarian help is always required in the area or the people face starvation.

An article by Michael Krebs titled “Worst drought in 60 years in East Africa could impact 10 million” looks at the situation on drought in, Ethiopia, Somalia and the northern parts of Kenya. The writer analyses the current situation of the drought, causes of the drought, financial constraints facing the World Food Program in its quest to help the millions of people, and what needs to be done to avert a crisis that might cause death of millions of the people in the area (http://digitaljournal.com/article/308965).

Situation

The people living in the area are nomads who move from one place to another in search of food and pasture for their livestock; the situation is however grim as the drought has lead to deaths of thousands of livestock which is the source of their livelihood. In areas where a bit of farming is done crops have also failed. The drought has also forced thousands of people to move into the refugee camps, thus causing a crisis, the camp was built to accommodate about 90,000 now holds about 380,000 making it one of the biggest refugee camps in the world (http://digitaljournal.com/article/308965).

The situation is made worse by the increase of food prices and the persistent lack of rain, according to Dr Unni Krishnan the disaster coordinator for children’s development organization Plan International, “All the predictions show seasonal rains are far away and the situation will deteriorate — we have not even reached the peak of the crisis.” The comments can be interpreted to mean that the situation might become worse. The world Food Program is also facing a deficit of about 40% in terms of funding. In order to avert the crisis that may face the millions of people the World Food Program will have to be allocated about US$190 that is needed in order to address the issue of drought facing the three countries (http://digitaljournal.com/article/308965).

Things learnt from the article

The World Food Program has immense responsibility of making sure that not even a single person dies as a result of lack of food or water. Another thing learned is that Kenya has the biggest refugee camp in the whole world. The other thing learned is that rain plays very crucial part in the lives of many people in Africa and that the lack of it can have adverse effects on the people (http://digitaljournal.com/article/308965).

Weakness and strengths of the article

The article does not elaborately explain the situation on the ground as it is, the article does not state how the situation is being handled even if there are some constraints the strength of the article is that it is well researched, the writer has very reliable sources that are not biased such as the World Food Program, and CNN.

Conclusion

All continents have their own problems, but there are some that affect mainly the continent of Africa. Drought has for a very long time affected millions of People, the WFP has played an exemplary role in ensuring that the affected people are given all the necessary help. However the World Food Program has to be given the entire necessary fund so as to be able to carry out their activities. A permanent should be put in place should be put in place so that the people living in the areas do not rely on humanitarian help all their lives.

Work Cited

“Worst drought in 60 years in East Africa could impact 10 million.” Worst drought in 60 years in East Africa could impact 10 million. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. <http://digitaljournal.com/article/308965>

Africa-America Public Policy Matters

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Africa-America Public Policy Matters

The story regarding Africa-American and their affiliation with the South American and the rest of the world is fundamental and significant to the America’s history up to date. Between the years 1870 to 1920, there was considerable experience concerning the Africa-America policy matters. The significant policies during this period include the Reconstruction Amendments, the season of hope, the “Exodusters,” disfranchisement and segregation. In this essay, the mentioned above policies as well as the role of terrorism, Supreme Court, national and regional leaders during the era will be discussed into a profound extent.

After the victory by North during the civil war, lots of questions raised regarding the Africa-American and the Confederate States Among these most questioned matter considered the position of the ex-slaves in the society and the standing of the defeated ex-Confederate states in the Union. The thirteenth, fourteenth, and the fifteenth Reconstruction Amendments to the constitution correctly answers the previous queries. The Thirteenth Amendment was proposed in 1864 and approved in 1865. It concerns the abolishment of slavery, and unwilling bondage apart from those found guilty of a crime according to the law. The fourteenth Amendment regards the equal protection of laws for all civilians as well as the rights of citizens. It was anticipated in 1866 and authorized in 1868. The Fifteenth Amendment was proposed in 1869 an approved in 1870. It addresses prohibition of discrimination of citizens’ rights to vote regardless of the prior servitude status, color and race (Hobbs, 2014). The three above Amendments did not address discrimination in regards to sex basis. However, this is addressed on the Nineteenth Amendment which was approved in 1920.

The “season of hope” during 1870 to 1920 oversees the future of Africa-Americans in the nation which was signified by some progress. They come out from the old techniques of supervised slavery and overstretched plantation owners to adopt personal family cultivation. The Fifteenth Amendment which granted the right to vote continued to be adhered to and some blacks could even hold office years later after reconstruction. The “Exoduster” movement was on the positive association of Africa-Americans towards Kansas from the South. Benjamin Singleton, who was a freedman from Tennessee played a significant role in planning the unexpected movement.

Disfranchisement and segregation were the techniques used by the Southern states to pass laws which were made to impose white supremacy. This refers to the act of outlawing Africans’ rights to vote and racial separation following the disappointment of the Lodge Force Bill. Disfranchisement was the first to be implemented through literacy test and beginning tax poll towards the blacks. The Supreme Court supported the mentioned states laws claiming that there was no prescribed race. Hence they did not violate the law. After the freeing of Africa-Americans from the voters’ list, the states had the mandate to do whatever they want with them. The states preferred segregation laws which did not only separate blacks in racial basis but also from access to necessities in life such as healthcare, education, housing and employment (Elliott & Kelley 2016).

The Supreme Court played a part in supporting the federal states through authorization of Disfranchisement which left the Africa-America well-being at threat during this era. Terrorism was commonly done through vigilante executions. They were a collective way of carrying out white supremacy on the local level by white multitudes responding to an apparent violation of ethnic customs. Terrorism in the form of racial-riot played a significant role in manifesting violence towards Africa-Americans. Various regional leaders such as Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois played an essential role in advocating accommodation to separation and Africa-America rights in regards to equality and incorporation into the convention of American life.

In the 1910s, the Africa-Americans were better off compared to the 1870s and 1880s because their rights regarding voting bun, segregation and disfranchisement had been reprimanded (Tapscott, 2007). They had also had access to the vital services and opportunities such as healthcare, education and employment which was not the case during the 1870s and 1880s.

References

Elliott, M., & Kelley, B. M. (2016). Entries 222 was the states’ power to define citizens by color.“There is no caste here,” Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote in dissent.“Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.” Blacks hoped that Harlan’s view would prevail someday. The Cambridge Guide to African American History, 221.

Hobbs, A. (2014). A chosen exile: a history of racial passing in American life. Harvard University Press.

Tapscott, C. (2007). The challenges of building participatory local government. Participatory governance, 81-95.

Africa-American & African Studies: Season of Migration to the North

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1. Reading Mustafa Sa’eed’s relationship with the English women as a metaphor for contemporary (1960s) power struggles, what does Seasons of Migration to the North say about either (a) the relationship between east and west, or (b) the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized?

‘Season of migration to the north’ is a Sudanese post colonial novel written by Tayeb Salih. The novel is a tale of two parallel postcolonial characters. The anonymous narrator returns to his native home Sudan after spending seven years furthering his education in England. In his village, he encounters Mustafa Sa’eed, a villager who is less concerned about his achievements unlike the others. Mustafa Sa’eed recites a poem in English while drunk and betrays his past. The narrator resolutely discovers their similarities with Mustafa who likewise studied in Europe although he violently harbors hate of his western acquaintances that had a complex relationship. He in fact confessed killing his British woman while in England and exploited a number of them sexually where three of them committed suicide. The narrator’s discovery of Mustafa’s experience in England triggers anger, curiosity, and despair in him. Mustafa drown in River Nile and disappears mysteriously leaving the narrator to take charger of Mustafa’s wife and his two sons. The novel emphasizes on the troubled past of Mustafa in Europe where he hunts a number of women and finally falls for a British woman. His marriage with the woman is consummated with violence and imprisonment. He finally moves to his village in Sudan along the banks on Nile where he remarries and bears children. Mustafa is used to reveal the narrator’s past indirectly where he befriends him and makes him his sons’ guardian and his enigmatic life repository before committing suicide. The narrator is passive and is subdued by sought of a concealed relationship with parents and villagers. The novel touches on sexual mores, status of women, colonial arrogance and Sudan’s Independence.

‘Season of migration to the north’ attempts to lay criticism on imperialism as a way to expose it. The title north is used not only as a direction but an ideology. “In her eyes I was a symbol of all her hankerings. I am south that yearns for the North and the ice” (Salih 30). This shows the icy nature of Mustafa since he is portrayed as having no emotions or feelings showing the competitive nature between South and North for instance “ I was like something rounded, made of rubber: you throw it in the water it doesn’t get wet, you throw it on the ground and it bounces back” (Salih 20). “…a southern thirst being dissipated in the mountain passes of history in the north” (Salih 42) portray Mustafa’s desire to leave South and become part of North and his attempt to do this by marrying a Briton, leads him in Jail and ends up in Sudan or South. However, he did not entirely detach from north since he had photographs, collection of books for study and spoke fluent English. Alienation hunts the narrator until the end. The author condemns the effects of colonialism. The life of Mustafa tells the nature of contamination and cultural contact between British which is the former colonial power of Sudan. The sexual exploits upon women could be vengeance towards the British colonizers as noted “This is a fact in my life: the way chance has placed people in my path who gave me a helping hand at every stage,, people for whom I had no feelings of gratitude: I used to take their help as though it were some duty they were performing for me” (Salih 23). His misapprehension of his inviolability indicates the consequence of attempt to be assimilated in civilization as contradicted by his culture. Sa’eed’s mind absorbed Western civilization which in turn ended up breaking his heart. This shows an opposition between civilization or West and savagery or Africa which could not unite due to the differences in economic, political and social status.

Individuals who have developed inferiority complex as a result of colonization try to imitate the west as in the case of Sa’eed who comes to realize that no level of education would equalize him and ‘them’. From the novel, Mustafa Sa’eed remained colonized “The language, though which I now heard for the first timer is not like the language I had learnt at school. These are living voices and have another ring. My mind was like a keen knife. But the language is not my language; I had learnt to be eloquent in it through perseverance” (Salih 28 &29). Realistically, Sa’eed could not be accepted in the dominant western culture in spite of his education. He is impressed as having overcome primitivism by the English. As a result, he lives a paradox in assimilation which distances him from his natives and never becomes equal to ‘them’. Therefore, Sa’eed seduced and left English women and murders his own wife as atonement to reciprocate his moral exile. For instance when he is asked by Isabella Seymore if he was Asian or African, he replies: “I’m like Othello…..Yes,’ she said: ‘Your nose is like the noses of Arabs’….’Yes, that’s me. My face is Arab like the desert of the Empty Quarter while my head is African and teems with a mischievous childishness” (Salih 38) Sa’eed’s response shows that he recognizes the attitude of the English towards their colonial subjects. Sa’eed points out referring to Isabella that “….There came a moment when I felt I had been transformed in her eyes in to a naked, primitive creature, a spear in one hand and arrows in the other, hunting elephants and lions in the jungle” (Salih 38). The statement is a reflection of Isabella’s tales regarding Africa which stereotyped him as primitive. This is racial discrimination which made Mustafa who stands for the colonized society to suffer emotionally contributing to low self esteem. Isabella as a woman represents the colonizer who regarded the colonized as primitive.

Sa’eed becomes violent and during his trial, he states that “Yes, my dear sirs, I came as an invader into your very homes: a drop of poison which you have injected into the veins of history. I am no Othello. Othello was a lie” (Salih 95). Disclosing his identity reveals that he has finally accepted his culture and is willing to fight for it. Professor Maxwell Foster-Keen who was Sa’eed’s former mentor and he defends him in court stating that “You, Mr. Sa’eed.., are the best example of the fact that our civilizing mission in Africa is of no avail. After all the efforts we’ve made to educate you, it’s as if you’d come out the jungle for the first time” (Salih 93&94) this is a clear and a straightforward reflection of colonial ideology rather than crime he had committed. He suffers seven years imprisonment and finally moves back to his home country, Sudan in a primitive village near the River Nile. The women were not murdered by Mustafa Sa’eed but rather by the deadly economic, cultural and political disease infected from the colonial invasion. Sa’eed reflects a colonialism convert who failed. He recognizes that he is an intruder, a colonizer of civilization and an exile from his natives reflecting the unstable relationship between Africa and the West.

Season of migration to the north portray the adverse relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. Irrespective of the effort to become westernized, there is no way that the two cultures could integrate and become one whatsoever. There exists cultural conflicts since the Africans, in this case, Mustafa, after suffering rejection and discrimination decides to stand for status quo and engages in revenge mission. To compensate for the pain he has suffered while in the West, Mustafa harasses women sexually who ends up committing suicide because of him. His engagement with women represents the marriage of the two different lifestyles that could not match irrespective of the efforts invested in the union. Unsuccessful literal marriage between Mustafa and his British wife reflects the incompatibility of the two cultures. This way, the author portrays women as the weaker gender that becomes victims of the circumstance. The novel is a clear reflection of the political conflicts that existed at the postcolonial time between the colonizers (British) and the colonized (Sudan). Efforts made to civilize the colonized society were nullified although some aspect of alienation stuck making a dent to their culture. The efforts to become civilized did not come easy else, it involved bloodshed, suffering and imprisonment as experienced by suicide of the women, murder of Mustafa’s wife and his ultimate imprisonment. This portrays the adverse effects that resulted from colonization which spoilt the relationship between the two societies.

Works Cited:

Salih Tayeb. Season of Migration to the North. Great Britain: Heinemann Educational Publishers. 1969.

African American civil rights movement

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The African American civil rights movement started in the year 1955 (Paul, 2009, 199). It was a movement that championed the equality between the African Americans and the Caucasians. It was one of the most lucrative and the most important social movements whose existence was in the twentieth centuries. Half of the movement was led by Martin Luther king Junior himself. He was one of the greatest fighters for equality. The other half of the movement was led by Malcom X who believed that this equality could be only achieved through forceful, violent and radical methods.

The main goal of the movement was to bring to an end the racial segregation and discrimination against black Americans and enforce the constitutional voting rights to them. Racism and color discrimination was a major problem in the world especially in America and in the other western countries. This movement of which I strongly support its course fought hard to have the status quo overturned (Paul, 2009 199). Numerous efforts were made by the leaders and the followers to ensure that their main aim was achieved.

This movement was one of its own and was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, acts of non-violent protests and civil disobedience. This movement succeeded in bringing out fully the plight of the African Americans in the hands of the white elite to the Federal authorities who had to respond to the scenario with a lasting solution. Forms of protest and civil disobedience an example being the Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama and a wide range of other nonviolent activities sent across the message of the inequality that characterized the systems in the USA as well as in the world (Paul, 2009, 200). Many achievements were made by the runners of this movement.

References

Paul F. (2009). Encyclopedia of African American history. New York: Oxford.

African American Empowerment

The history of America has played and continues to play an important role in its past and current political, social and economic events. This history is also playing a big role in shaping its future as it has laid down rules and policies which have formed the building block of the American economy. This essay identifies some of the most important events in the American history, highlighting their significance. It further reviews the historical contest of these events and factors which led to their occurrence.

Tuskegee institute came into existence in the late nineteenth century. Approval for its building was secured by William Forester and Arthur Brooks who were returning a favor to a black politician named Lewis Adams. Its founding father was Booker T Washington who was inspired by the need to create a self sufficient and independent African-American society throughout the South. The charter that brought the institute into existence was from the Alabama legislature and its students were meant to be future teachers. The students were trained in academics and occupation related subjects like law but most of the emphasis was put on the practical part of education whereby students were trained on crafts like farming, carpentry and even masonry. The whites from the South who initially, were against education for the African American came to appreciate the efforts of Booker T Washington as they saw these particular efforts as a way of enlightening the African Americans on accepting their inferiority to the whites. It is because of this that some like Andrew Carnegie contributed towards building of the institute.

Born on the thirtieth of January in the year eighteen thirty nine, Samuel C Armstrong rose through the military ranks to become a colonel and general who fought during the American Civil War. After a distinguished carrier in military service, Samuel turned his life to focus on education where he became an inspiration and role model to the likes of Booker T Washington. His carrier in education began during an assignment to command the eighth United States Colored Troops. During this assignment, he developed the need and interest to improve the welfare of the African Americans and as such, he established a school at Stanton to give basic education to the African American soldiers. At the end of the assignment, with help from the American Missionary Association, he established the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. This institute was meant to equip the black Americans with necessary job and teaching skills to enable them provide for themselves. His Hampton style of education sought to encourage equality among blacks and whites by encouraging the whites to develop those they considered the inferior race. It also taught the blacks to become independent and contribute positively towards the well being of their communities. This style put much emphasis on education which involved the heart, mind and the hands as a means of securing ones future and well being.

The term ‘The Talented Tenth’ was derived from the white liberals in the North and was made public by William Du Bois. These white liberals such as the American Baptist Home Mission Society had the ambition of empowering the blacks via building them colleges to nature their skills and ambitions. ‘Talented Tenth’ simply meant that out of ten black men empowered through education, writing and involvement in social activities, one of them would rise up and become a leader of the rest. Du Bois highlighted the importance of classical education over industrial education lobbied by the likes of Booker T Washington, as an ultimate way of nurturing the African American potential and producing future intellectuals. African Americans were to become the best if they were to stamp out the racial stigma and inferiority status. The work of Du Bois on ‘Talented Tenth’ clearly showed how leadership could be achieved all the way from the grassroots. It is through such concepts as ‘Talented Tenth’ that African Americans knew they could lead and be at par with the rest of the society.

Oppression

‘Double consciousness’ was a term made by William Du Bois. It sought to explain the many faces of an individual’s identity and describe the divisions, either social or psychological that marked the American society. It sought to explain the disadvantaged position African Americans were put in as they were torn between their origin as blacks and their identity as Americans. This caused some degree of psychological and social tension among the African Americans and as result, their psyche was lowered and their degree of morality destroyed. While coining this term, it was never in Du Bois interest to alienate America with the African values, rather to harmonize the identity of an individual as an African and as an American. This would help rid the American society of racism and do away with the inferiority stigma that dominated the minds of the African Americans. ‘Double consciousness’ manifested in three ways that is; the superiority of white stereotypes over black life, racism which segregated the blacks from the rest of the society and the conflict of ideologies between one’s identity as an American and as an African. This concept went a long way in helping people understand an African American as a person and the problems he faced and opened channels through which he could be helped.

Change in Society

The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment showed the rise of the African Americans from the jargon of slavery and segregation by the society. After the Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln, there emerged a need to create laws to govern activities of the freed slaves in the South. This is what led to the ratification that became known as the Fourteenth Amendment. In this amendment, Republicans hailing from the northern states and those from the South gave the African Americans the legal right and entitlement to American citizenship.

However, these rights were not inclusive of the rights to vote and elect their leaders which still remained a privilege of the whites. This disparity was however done away with in the Fifteenth Amendment which enabled people to vote without any discrimination. As a result, every person, so long as he was an American citizen legally, was allowed to vote despite of the color of his skin and the race which he belonged to. These amendments showed American society progression towards a free and fair society in which racial segregation no longer provided basis for dispensing services. They were a step forward towards achievement of an equal and fair society.

Atlanta compromise was an agreement that came into being in eighteen ninety five. It was aimed at creating harmony between whites and blacks in the South. It condemned African Americans to submission to their white southern counterparts in exchange of the education and a proper law process. Under this agreement, African Americans were to suffer in silence and never advocate for proper justice system and equal treatment. The whites on the other hand were to fund educational projects which were to benefit the black Americans. The terms and conditions of this agreement were never written down and Booker T Washington; the founder of Tuskegee Institute brokered the deal on behalf of the entire African American population. This compromise served to bridge the gap between the blacks and the whites. It further laid down the concrete foundation for the achievement of racial equality. The speech which yielded this agreement was made at Bubba Park in Atlanta Georgia before a white audience and it became known as the Atlanta Cotton States and International Exposition Speech. The term ‘Tuskegee Machine’ was coined to describe the supporters of this compromise. However, with the death of Booker T in nineteen fifteen and continued resistance from the likes of William Du Bois and William Monroe who advocated for equal rights, this compromise eventually collapsed.

The ‘New Negro’ was a movement that resulted from struggles of African American migrants towards achieving a society based on fairness and equality. After their migration from South to the industrial North at the end of the American Civil War in the mid nineteenth century, they became concentrated in a place known as Harlem. It is while living in Harlem that their political and cultural activities flourished and received nationwide recognition. Cultural activities like music were used to enlighten the general American public about the African American life and its challenges. It was through such means that African Americans advocated for equality and fairness in treatment. Their leaders like Marcus Garvey came up with publications such as the ‘Negro World’ that sought to articulate the problems facing the blacks and unify all the African Americans towards a common cause. This movement later on, gave rise to the Universal Negro Movement and Conservation Association and African Communities League which brought the needs of the blacks all over the world to a center stage. Such movements showed the need for collective responsibility among the African Americans towards achieving a society devoid of racism and based on fairness

Conclusion

Events, institutions and concepts such as Tuskegee Institute, ‘Double consciousness’, ‘Talented Tenth’, Atlanta compromise served to empower the African Americans and enable them attain complete independence. They brought forth issues like racism and segregation which the blacks had to deal with and appealed to the society and the world in general to come up with ways of ensuring equality and fairness. They highlighted the need to uphold human dignity and values while at the same time, condemning vices such as racism.

Reference

Adams, David Wallace (1995). Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928. pp. 45, 326 Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.

Joy James (1997): Transcending the Talented Tenth: Black Leaders and American Intellectuals, New York: Routledge Publshers.

Du Bois, W. E. B (1994): The Souls of Black Folk. New York, Avenel, NJ: Gramercy Books;

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DateAfrican American Freedom: John F. Kennedy and John Lewis’ Speeches.

John F. Kennedy was a strong supporter of the civil rights for the African Americans. Various reasons can be derived from bot his speech on the civil rights act and the speech delivered by John Lewis during the march on Washington. From the introductory part of John F Kennedy’ speech, he says that every American ought to have the right to be treated as he would wish to be addressed, as one could wish his children to be treated. With these claims, we get to know that the issues of segregation as well as racial discrimination are not pleasing in the eyes of Kennedy and that is the primary reason as to why he laments on the issue of equality all the people of America particularly the Black people.

John F. Kennedy is of the opinion that all the people of the American nation should be afforded equal rights as provided by the constitution and that there should be no discrimination on the basis of skin color in the public places such restaurants, schools and regarding the voting of the leaders to represent the citizens. In the speech, Kennedy notes that since President Lincoln freed the slaves, their grandsons are not free, implying that he is of the full support of the freedom of the African American citizens. He further notes that the grandsons are still faced with oppression from the social and economic perspectives and therefore are not entirely freed from the bonds of injustices.

Kennedy being the president of America at the time accepts the challenge and accept that the American nation is faced with a moral crisis and that it cannot be left to the increased demonstrations in the streets for the crisis to be solved. He notes that it is the time to act in all the parties that are involved and these include the Congress, States and the local legislative body as well as the daily lives of individuals. He points out that Congress holds a crucial responsibility as they are entrusted to the formulation of laws and regulations that are enforced in the nation. Kennedy, therefore, urges the Congress to act and formulate the necessary laws to act as remedies for the struggle of the African Americans in the urge to regain their freedom. The Congress is requested to make legislation that provides all the Americans with equal rights to be served in the facilities that are open to the public such as hotels, restaurants, theatres, retail stores, and other similar establishments.

From John Lewis’ speech on the March on Washington delivered in August 1963, despite their struggle, he acknowledges the measures and efforts that John F. Kennedy has put in place to ensure that all the American citizens are exposed to the same treatments. The government has, in this case, provided a bill although Lewis claims that it is late and at the same time too little implying that at least there are some efforts in place to curb the menace facing the black Americans in the US. Lewis confirms through his speech that Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it into courts implying that Kennedy wants the problem solved legally and not through the streets for them to find a lasting solution. With the evidence above, we can, therefore, say comfortably that John F. Kennedy was a strong supporter of civil rights for the African Americans.

Subject

Students Name

Institution of Affiliation

DateAfrican American Freedom: John F. Kennedy and John Lewis’ Speeches.

John F. Kennedy was a strong supporter of the civil rights for the African Americans. Various reasons can be derived from bot his speech on the civil rights act and the speech delivered by John Lewis during the march on Washington. From the introductory part of John F Kennedy’ speech, he says that every American ought to have the right to be treated as he would wish to be addressed, as one could wish his children to be treated. With these claims, we get to know that the issues of segregation as well as racial discrimination are not pleasing in the eyes of Kennedy and that is the primary reason as to why he laments on the issue of equality all the people of America particularly the Black people.

John F. Kennedy is of the opinion that all the people of the American nation should be afforded equal rights as provided by the constitution and that there should be no discrimination on the basis of skin color in the public places such restaurants, schools and regarding the voting of the leaders to represent the citizens. In the speech, Kennedy notes that since President Lincoln freed the slaves, their grandsons are not free, implying that he is of the full support of the freedom of the African American citizens. He further notes that the grandsons are still faced with oppression from the social and economic perspectives and therefore are not entirely freed from the bonds of injustices.

Kennedy being the president of America at the time accepts the challenge and accept that the American nation is faced with a moral crisis and that it cannot be left to the increased demonstrations in the streets for the crisis to be solved. He notes that it is the time to act in all the parties that are involved and these include the Congress, States and the local legislative body as well as the daily lives of individuals. He points out that Congress holds a crucial responsibility as they are entrusted to the formulation of laws and regulations that are enforced in the nation. Kennedy, therefore, urges the Congress to act and formulate the necessary laws to act as remedies for the struggle of the African Americans in the urge to regain their freedom. The Congress is requested to make legislation that provides all the Americans with equal rights to be served in the facilities that are open to the public such as hotels, restaurants, theatres, retail stores, and other similar establishments.

From John Lewis’ speech on the March on Washington delivered in August 1963, despite their struggle, he acknowledges the measures and efforts that John F. Kennedy has put in place to ensure that all the American citizens are exposed to the same treatments. The government has, in this case, provided a bill although Lewis claims that it is late and at the same time too little implying that at least there are some efforts in place to curb the menace facing the black Americans in the US. Lewis confirms through his speech that Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it into courts implying that Kennedy wants the problem solved legally and not through the streets for them to find a lasting solution. With the evidence above, we can, therefore, say comfortably that John F. Kennedy was a strong supporter of civil rights for the African Americans.

African American History

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African American History

History has a way of repeating itself or rather rhyming. Even though most of the time the conditions are not exactly the same, the happenings are the same and this makes it very easy for us to notice what is happening and how exactly we should deal with them. The same applies to Africa Americans’ history in the United States from the time of slavery up to the current time when so many changes have happened but still the spirit of discrimination still exists (Corbett et al, 2017). The African Americans right now are somehow better off but not in the best position. It all goes back to the 18th century when the issue of slavery was too much and the only thing that the black people in America at that time did to the British colonists was to serve them. After that, the constitution declared slavery unconstitutional and then immediately some whites rejected it while the blacks found it too difficult to handle the freedom. After that, the African got to realize they should be free and began to fight for their justice and inclusion. This paper discusses the changes that have happened to African Americans throughout history and how most of the time the happenings have been a repetition of activities.

Firstly, the African Americans did not willingly leave their African continent but were bought like goods. At that time the value placed on the life of a black was so small such that a person could be bought. This was the beginning of slavery in the United States. Even during the revolutionary war, the articles of confederation, and the creation of the constitution, the black man was still a slave. In fact, the constitution stated clearly whites could own black people. In the southern part of the United States, the slaves were majorly used to work on the cotton plantations among other things (Corbett et al, 2017). They could also work for their masters in basically any job that they were given to do. This was a difficult part of their everyday life as it was not satisfactory. This was the beginning of the process of history repeating itself.

Even when the American constitution declared slavery unconstitutional and a violation of human rights, some whites never wanted to hear this and this was what led to the civil war as the southern part of the United States did not want the black people to be free as they feared what they would do without their labor to work on their coffee farms (Corbett et al, 2017). This was a continuation and indeed a reflection of the slavery which existed before and which was toxic. After the civil war, there was a need for black people to be taken away from the society as they were not needed and slavery once again repeated itself as a lot of jails were put up and most of the people who were in jail were black people.

After that period the black person realized that they should not be treated in a way that is not good for a human being. Therefore, people like Nat Turner disobeyed the rules of their masters and even killed them and escaped. Therefore, the history of black men being in danger and being enslaved has always repeated itself in a lot of ways. The other period is when people like Martin Luther King came out openly to fight for the rights of the black people. During the time of Martin Luther King, junior history repeated itself when he began his campaign and desire to make African be at the same level as whites. He even got stabbed by a woman he did not know just because of the particular reason that he wanted to liberate the black people. It, therefore, means that if the issue of discrimination came up to the time of Martin Luther it was always present but dormant. At the same time, it also means that it is very difficult to get them thinking of black Americans that they are oppressed easily (Corbett et al, 2017). It is also very difficult to convince a white man that a black man has stopped being black and that they should sit at the same table or even the black man to be more important than the white man. Even though that happens sometimes, it does not always happen.

In conclusion, history has been repeating itself when it comes to the issue of slavery and African Americans within the United States. It is not the best story and history of the United States but still at the same time steps are being made towards making sure that everything can be shared equally between all kinds of people.

References

Corbett, P. S., Janssen, V., Lund, J. M., Pfannestiel, T. J., Vickery, P. S., & Roberts, O. (2017). US history. OpenStax.

African American literature and its importance to the slaves and freemen.This is the body of writing that was used by African descendants who lived in the United States. It contained the slave narratives and spiritual literature, but after development of slave writing, autobiographical spiritual writing slowly diminished. In African American writing, a wide range of themes were featured in the texts that included; Africans role in the American population, racism, slavery and equality. Today in the African American writing, assimilation of oral narratives such as, sermons, rap, and gospel music. Before the civil war the writings majorly spoke about slavery (done by escaped slaves or freed slaves), while those born there voiced about oppression and racism. But after the civil war, and in the 20th century, African American literature was considered a part of American literature. It now talks about their roles and what position they take in their nation and issue of equality that had long been denied to them. Some of the characteristics of the African American literature were the use of poems, songs and stylistic devices such as alliteration and repetition were used. Some of the earliest writers were Lucy Terry, Phyllis Wheatley and Jupiter Hammon (Smith, 18). World War 1 and 2 that lead to the great immigration helped the Africans move from the south to the northern places like Chicago where they got jobs in factories and gave African writers the opportunity to expound on their work. Since the 19th century books written by Africans have gained popularity and publishing and being top bestsellers is often seen now than before.

Importance of African American literature. During the slave error, they were seen as subhuman and were seen as those who cannot learn the art and sciences. The main reason why black Americans wrote was to proof that they too could write and produce as the whites’ did or even way better and to proof they are just as better as the Whiteman was. They needed to be treated as equally as other people were since they were all human beings. The literature was used to voice their problems and what difficulties they went through. It was used to express what their problems were and what they would want be done for them. Through writing they were able to show they were both intelligent opposed to what the whites’ saw them as. Today, they use writing to maintain that legacy and to still show despite them having different skin complexion the still are able just like everybody else. Literatures in the 18th and 19th century discuss the essential aspect of the black songs and stories and honouring of their vernacular, they wanted to enrich it and preserve their heritage. With regards to spirituality, writers like Wheatley urged their people to keep Christian message of brotherhood. In the early republican the text was used as a way to negotiate their new status as free citizens and not slaves anymore; however African American literature was highly opposed by the Whiteman and some of the Blacks. People from within the community describe the literature as portraying Black community to be dark and negative livelihood. Several African writers have recently written accusing their own to be unfair. The whites who thought us to be illiterate and sub-humans wrote about it in opposition to what black writers wrote. Some were hanged and lynched as their texts tried to eliminate slavery and discrimination. After the abolition of slavery and freedom to write they still hard difficulties in publishing their work.

Importance of learning to read and write by freemen and slaves. Learning to read and write was of great importance to the freemen since they were able to integrate themselves in the white community and in some occasions start up their own developments. Bans and restrictions were placed to prevent to prevent African Americans from learning to read and write by the Whiteman; anybody caught doing so was severely punished. They held meetings secretly to learn to read and write. The knowledge of reading and writing was of great importance to the slaves as they were able to read the bible hence preachers were able to preserve Christianity and aided in maintaining brotherhood in the community (Beyan, 171). Through ability to read and write, leaders were able to speak and express more of their grievances, the preached, wrote articles and gave speeches to people to be law abiding. The believed only through following the laws and being truthful were they to overcome discrimination. Through learning to read and write the freemen were able to write, they were able to talk and voice their troubles and oppressions, they were able to do so on behalf of the slaves down in the south. They used it as a way to show the white man that they too had the capability and intelligence just as they did. This helped try remove discrimination and racism from the society. Development of African American institutions led to the development of education in the black society and promoted equality and literacy in the African American community after the abolishment of slavery in the 19th an 20th centuries. Through learning of mathematical concepts job opportunities such as carpentry, cookery, wheel making and accounting were developed enabling them build their lives and improve their living standards ( Beyan, 178). They passed on their literacy to their children to keep it improving in every generation.

Written by himself, is a phrase used by writer Benjamin Franklin. The understanding of the statement, is to show that he alone wrote what he did, through his effort did he come up with the text. Many African American authors were denied the credit for what work they had written. Since they were considered to be illiterates, their work was degraded but through the phrase” written by Himself” it significantly proved that like other people Africans could write and learn to do anything on their own. The importance of this phrase is to eliminate discrimination and promote equality that everyone had the ability to do things just as someone else could. It also showed that one had the ability to read and write, do work that involved intelligence and mental involvement such as working in banks, carpentry and designing that required mathematical knowledge.

African American literature really helped black people rise from the hardships they lived in and helped them in establishing their lives and making something out of themselves. It is now in the larger framework of American literature though it still remains independent; through the years it has gained various new styles and no longer dwells on slavery. Development of jazz, hip hop and blues as forms of music express love and other themes.

Cited work;

Beyan, Phyllis M.. The emergence of African American literacy traditions family and community efforts in the nineteenth century. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. Print.

Smith, Valerie, Lea Baechler, and A. Walton Litz. African American writers. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons ;, 1991. Print.

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African American Women by Harriet JacobsIn her book, Harriet Jacobs presents the life of an African American female slave. The book presents two homes, one where she has no right to herself and another where she has a role to play in her own life. The book presents the clear image of the life of African American girls in slavery. It also highlights their determination to live a free life, work and earn a decent living. However hard these girls try, Harriet Jacobs included, and their Masters and Mistresses pull them back. Harriet presents herself in the book as Linda and gives the true story of her life as a slave. This essay highlights Linda’s experiences in two different homes. In one home, she has some rights as a slave while in the other; she is entirely subjected to her master. The essay also focuses on the social relationships and domestic labor that Linda is subjected. The triumphs of Linda generally present the life of other African American girl slave (Jacobs 15).

Treatment and relations in the first home;

The pressure to have sex

In her first home, where she works under Mr. Flint she is under pressure to have sex with him. African American slaves working in the plantations were subdued under pressure to engage in sex with their masters. It was the only way to show dedication to working for ones master. Her master Mr. Flint has a way of manipulating people around him to get what he wants. The only way out of an unwanted sexual relationship with her master is by having an affair with her master’s neighbor. By doing this, her master will feel disgusted and sell her to Mr. Sands (her masters neighbor). Pressure to have sex is demoralizing and limits a person’s freedoms. African American girls in slavery were under pressure to have sex with their employers.

Harsh treatment by her mistress

At Mr. Flint`s home, Linda`s mistress was cruel toward her, and she was put through undesired labor. Mistresses mistreated African American girl slaves because they were jealous and they wanted to show dominance over African Americans. Her mistress at Mr. Flint`s home was rude to her and always found a way to embarrass her in front of her husband. Though masters had control over their slaves by law, some of the treatment they received was inhuman.

Sale of children

African American girl slave were put in situations that forced them to sell their children. Linda while working at Mr. Flint`s son plantation wanted the best for her children. She never fancied her children to living like slaves. Neither did she want them to be under the ownership of their master. She wanted her children to know a different life, to go to school and have better treatment. African American girl slaves had to hide their children or send them far away so that they would not become slaves. Linda had to ask Mr. Sands to buy her children from Mr. Flint. Children were also involved in slavery when they were born by slave mothers. She also had to buy her daughters freedom from Mr. Flint’s daughter who claimed possession.

Family separation

In a bid to have her children living a better life than she does, Linda had to be separated with her children. As she went to hide from Mr. Flint, she was close to her children where she could watch them through a peephole yet too far. She had to watch her children from a distance, but she could not let them know that she was around, as her master would find her. At a different time, she had to send her son to live with her brother so that he could not be put through slavery.

Not fit for marriage

Linda finds herself in a situation where African American men consider her as not fit for marriage. This was because she is a mother to children from a white father. African American girls who were impregnated by their white masters were considered as loose girls who were not fit for marriage with African American men (Jacobs 14). The situation was quite unfair since white men could not marry African American slave girls yet they had impregnated them. Neither did African American men marry these girls; they were not desired for marriage by anybody.

The second home

This is the home of Mr. Bruce; here Linda receives fair treatment as an African American girl slave. She is able to have good relations with the people around her and as free from ownership. Mr. Bruce is not possessive and asks her to continue working for him even after the mistress dies (Jacobs 13). Mr. Bruce helps Linda buy her daughters freedom from Mr. Flint’s daughter. This kind of treatment is not offered to all African American female slaves. This treatment is a privilege for Linda, a girl who had been pressured to live a neglected life.

Not subjected to sexual exploitation

Her master Mr. Bruce did not subject her as a slave to sexual exploitation. Throughout the book, Mr. Bruce is presented as a man who is understanding and loves his wife. At this home, Linda was able to get her dignity as a woman (Jacobs 7). She was respected both by her master and by her mistress; here sex was not a part of their relationship. In this home, she was treated as part of the home. This was a new way of life for her as she was not raped and had her piece of mind.

African American girl slaves were very lucky to work in such a home where they were respected (White 16). This environment was accommodative for them and enabled them to grow as young women. In such a home, an African American girl slave was able to raise her family without having to hide her children. Young families and children were not forcefully separated from their parents in the second home. Though African American girl slaves preferred these homes, they were very few of such homes. Linda’s children were allowed to live an independent life separate from their mother.

In conclusion

African American girl slaves were subjected to harsh and negative treatment as they worked for their masters. They went through rape and unwanted sexual relationships. They did not have any power over the relationships with their master and mistresses (White 12). African American girl slaves went through harsh times where they had to sell their children to protect them from living a life of slavery. They were at times also separated from their children so that their children would be safe from their masters.

Works Cited

Jacobs, Harriet A., and Jennifer Fleischner. Incidents in the life of a slave girl: written by herself. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010. Print.

White, E. Frances. Dark continent of our bodies: black feminism and the politics of respectability. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001. Print.